I. Consequences of Contraction
a. A new frame of reference
An inherent consequence of describing physical reality as contracting with time is that the velocity of light, c, must
be considered to be changing in size with the passage of time. This does not contradict special relativity theory's
assumption of a constant speed for light in a vacuum however, since all measurements of the speed of light are
made within the context of the present time frame in which everything is changing in the same way. When a beam of
light is released in the past and the distance it moves through is measured now, from the time it was released until
now it and the space through which it has traveled will have changed at the same rate as has everything else in the
present, thus they maintain a constant size relative to everything else in the present. The contracting nature of
things does, however, provide a reference frame, based upon the relative size of the distance scale that applies
when measuring the size of space at each point in time, for defining the past, present, and future. Each point in
space and time can then be described in terms of unique spatial coordinates. This is an advancement over general
relativity's space-time manifold in the sense that the time coordinate of general relativity can now be replaced by a
multiplier of the three spatial coordinates, this because the past existence of space and entities, while not directly
observable from the present, can be described in terms of size relative to the present existence of the same space
and entities, as can their future existence. With this approach it also becomes possible that space and entities,
measured in terms of the relative size of the relevant space-time reference frame at each moment in time, exist
objectively, independently and simultaneously, though with different sizes, positions, and rates of contraction
relative to the present.
Recently it has been proposed by some physicists, John Moffat et al (1999) and later Joao Magueijo, that the speed
of light was much faster at the beginning of the Universe, a point of view that obviously reflects the shrinking
concept put forward here. However, there is an important difference in what I am proposing in that it is the size of
space itself that contracts, not just the speed of light. This means that there is a uniform contraction of all space as
measured from all reference frames along with a contraction in the speed of light, and thus the velocity of light, while
contracting in size relative to it's own past, remains constant in size relative to the size of space in all reference
frames at the point in time considered. Consequently, special relativity's assumption of a constant speed for light
remains intact. This approach then gives the main benefit of having a faster speed for light at the beginning of the
Universe, namely the uniform distribution of mass and energy within the Universe, without the pitfalls associated with
breaking relativity's assumption of a constant speed for light.
b. Beginnings of the Universe
The following is an explanation of the initial development of the Universe, including the phenomenon of “inflation”,
based upon the contraction approach. Planck’s length describes the velocity of light in terms of Planck’s time period
(c equals Planck’s length/Planck's time period). As Planck’s length and Planck's time period are fundamental
constants, it is best to describe the contraction of the velocity of light and the expansion of space in terms of the
contraction of Planck’s length per Planck’s time period and it's change in size relative to the size of Universe over
the passage of time. The simplest description of the apparent expansion of the Universe through the contraction of
c would be to begin at t = 0 with the radius of the Universe (R), measured in terms of the rate that light moves
through space multiplied by time (not taking into account any added expansion factors), equal in size to Planck's
length, which at this point in time would equal approximately 1.3 x 10^26 meters in length, this equal to the present
size of c multiplied by the present age of the Universe as measured in terms of Planck time units (or ptu, approx. 5.4
x10^-44 secs), equal to approximately 7.8 x10^60 ptu. With this approach at t=0 c would equal approx. 1.3 x 10^26
meters per ptu, and from this point on c would contract at a rate of -1/(ptu)
^2.
A better way, however, to describe the evolution of the Universe is with the use of a combination of expansion and
contraction. This enables us to both to begin with a radius size of zero for the Universe and also to easily
accommodate accelerated rates of growth in the size of the Universe. With the simplest form of this expansion-
contraction approach we can say that the radius of the Universe expands from a radius size of zero at t = 0 at a rate
of t(P), where time (t) is measured in Planck time units (ptu), approx. 5.4x10^-44 secs, and P equals Planck's length
at that time (remembering it was much larger then than now). Let's assume (for reasons explained later) that the
speed of light from t = 0 to t=1 was approx. 2.8x10^30 (this equal to (7.8x10^60)^1/2) times as fast as it is now, and
also, initially the Universe expanded at c, so that at t=1 the radius of the Universe will have expanded in size to
approximately 4.5x10^-5m, equal to today's Planck's length times (2.8x10^30 ptu). At this point expansion of the
Universe continues but the speed of light, (c), our unit of measure of space, begins to contract at a rate of -1/t^2 per
ptu, where 1 represents the radius (R) of the Universe at t = 1ptu (this also equals Planck's length at t=1). Also, the
speed of light contracts in size incrementally every Planck time unit.* After approximately 2.8x10^30 Planck units of
time (1.5 x10^-13 seconds) the radius of the Universe will have expanded to a length that is approximately (2.8
x10^30) times it's size at t=1, while the speed of light (our standard of measure) will have contracted to a size that is
approximately 1/2.8x10^30 times it's speed at t=1. This then gives us a Universe that after approximately 1.5x10^-13
seconds (equal to (2.8x10^30 Planck units of time) will have an apparent radius equal to approximately 7.8 x10^60
times today’s Planck length (this equal to approximately length 1.3 x 10^26 meters ). At this point in time the
Universe slows or stops it's actual expansion, while the speed of light continues to contract, making the Universe
appear to expand.
This model as stands does not accurately reflect present day observations and interpretations of the expansion of
the Universe but it is possible to introduce variations in the expansion-contraction rates which not only enable the
model to more accurately reflect observations but also reveal the underlying unity that exists within the physical
structures of the Universe. As stated we can say that the radius of the Universe, measured in terms of the rate that
light moves through space multiplied by time, expands from a radius size of zero at a rate of R = t(P), where time (t)
is measured in Planck time units (ptu) and P equals Planck's length at t = 1. For simplicity sake we should assume
that the ratio of the radius of the present day Universe relative to Planck's length equals approximately 1x10^60:1
and that the speed of light from t = 0 to t=1 was 1x10^30 times as fast as it is now, so that at t=1 the radius of the
Universe will have expanded in size to approximately 1.6 x10^-5 m, equal to today's Planck's length x 1 x10^30. In
relative terms at that point in time this simply equals 1 Planck length. Now let's also assume that at this point the
Universe stops it's expansion for a period of time and the speed of light, (c), our unit of measure for the size of
space, begins to contract at a rate of -1/t^2 per ptu, where 1 represents the radius (R) of the Universe at t = 1 ptu
(which also equals Planck's length at t=1). The structure of the Universe at this time will be such that only one
reference frame can be considered to be non-dilated, while all other reference frames should be considered to be
moving away from this centered frame, each with a degree of time dilation relative to the centered non-dilated frame
determined by it's relative velocity, with a maximum time dilation of approximately 1x10^15 for the fastest moving
frame. After approximately 1x10^7.5 ptu, at an age of approx. 5.4x10^-36.5 sec, the Universe would appear to have
a relative size for it's radius of approx. (1x10^7.5) times Planck's length at the time, not because the radius has
changed in size but because Planck's length, this describing the speed of light, has contracted by a factor of 1/1.
0x10^7.5. It was during this stage in the evolution of the Universe that gravity would be separating from the unified
force that had until then existed. The next stage begins when a time acceleration of a factors of up to approximately
1x10^15 occur on the dilated aspects of space, for approximately 1 x 10^3.75 secs, so that the overall size of the
Universe actually expands (this a consequence of time acceleration) at such rates that after 1x10^11.75 ptu, at an
age of approx. 5.4x10^-33.25 sec, the Universe will have a radius of approx. 1.6x10^13.75m (this equal to 1.6 x10^-
5m times 1 x 10^15 times 1 x 10^3.75 secs) while Planck's length will have contracted to a size of approximately 1.6 x
10^-16.25m (this it's original size of approximately 1.6 x10^-5m contracted by a factor 1/1x10^11.25 (or 1x10^3.75
times 1x10^7.5). Consequently the relative size of the Universe at this time would be measured as approximately 1.0
x 10^30 Planck length units, or approximately 1.6x10^-5 m. The period of time over which this occurs would
represent the inflationary period in the Universe's evolution, when matter develops into it's primordial form, this
inflationary period also related to the presence of a large amount of dark energy in the Universe. It is this that sets
the stage for the next phase of expansion, when normal time is restored and Planck's length begins to return to
contracting at it's normal rate for that time. This results in an apparent rate of expansion for the Universe which is
somewhat greater than c for a period of time eventually returning to it's normal apparent rate, apparent because it's
actually due to the contraction of the speed of light. After approximately 1x10^30 ptu, the expansion reaches a point
where the interactions of electromagnetic energy begin to develop.
I'll will now explain why the Universe expands and Planck's length contracts at given rates. In my work "The Big
Shrink" I explain how the speed of light should be considered to be contracting with time, and that dilated reference
frames should be considered to be in a sense expanded relative to a non-dilated frame due to it's relationship to the
size of the past frame that corresponds to it, but with a contracted amount of space relative to the non-dilated frame
it exists in because of it's greater rate of contraction due to it greater size. Essentially dilated frames are expanded
reference frames manifested in contracted space. In that work I also explained the concept of accelerated time
reference frames in which the expanded and contracted natures of dilated frames are inverted, producing smaller
sized reference frames in expanded space. Applying these concepts to a primordial singularity (or similar such
entity) we can say that it has an infinite (in the case of an actual singularity, or extreme (in the case of limited
singularity, where the radius of total space can only collapse to the radius of one Planck length) time dilation which
begins to deteriorate through an interaction with a time accelerating agent (which I speculate is a recoil action
caused by the collapse of space that brought about the singularity), this bringing about a movement forward in
time. When the time accelerating agent is initially introduced to the singularity, one point in space becomes non-
dilated, with other points around it obtaining a speed and time dilation relative to that point, with the points furthest
away moving away the fastest with the greatest time dilation. This initial expansion follows the laws of Special
Relativity with it's speed limit of c and a progressively greater time dilation with speed. After approximately 1 x 10^7.5
Planck time units a second type of expansion occurs, this type associated with General Relativity and inflation.
During this phase the time dilations of each point in space are dissipated as they become non-dilated while space
rapidly expands, this all due to the time acceleration applied to the space. The contraction explanation of this is as
follows. Instead of a normal singularity we should begin with a limited singularity which has a radius of one Planck
length. However, since by nature space and the speed of light contracts with time, the length of Planck's length at
this time would be much larger than now, and I've determined that it would be approximately 5.4 x 10^-5 m. Thus
when the accelerating agent is applied to the singularity the relative velocity between different points in space is
actually a result of the size of the standard of measure of space contracting at that single point in space, and not
because of actual motion between it and other points. Actual motion between these points begins during the
second phase, the inflationary period. The inflationary period expands the actual size of the Universe for the period
of time it acts upon the space of the Universe. After this period the Universe stops actual expansion, and the
Universe only appears to expand through the contraction of the size of space.
In "The Big Shrink" I also explain contraction in terms of different levels with different but related rates based upon a
primary contraction rate of approximately 1/1 x 10^30, with secondary rates of the square root, 4th root, and 8th root
of 1/1 x 10^30. The nature of the initial contractions and expansions of space are based upon these different levels
and combinations of levels of contraction and expansion.
c. Time acceleration
One of the benefits of the contraction approach to understanding the apparent expansion of the Universe is that it
leads to the possibility of describing unique accelerated time reference frames. This becomes possible with the
contraction approach because the frame of reference relative to which time and space are measured is more
precisely defined than with the conventional interpretation of relativity, where it is simply the velocity of light. In the
contraction approach the basic frames of reference are the velocity of light and the rate at which it contracts with
time, this defining the size of space at any given time, and also, the size of space relative to the overall size of the
Universe.
Accelerated time reference frames have characteristics that are opposite to those of the dilated time reference
frames of special relativity theory. For an accelerated frame, time is accelerated, mass is diminished, and length is
expanded. As I will soon explain, while it is not obvious that it is possible to define accelerated time reference frames
with the conventional approach to relativity because of the relative nature of time reference frames, accelerated
time reference frames are a natural consequence of the contraction approach to describing dilated time reference
frames.
I believe that the concept of accelerated frames has not previously been considered with relativity theory because of
the presumption that the relative nature of motion precludes the possibility that accelerated time reference frames
can be uniquely defined. With the contraction approach to describing relativity it becomes more obvious that
accelerated time reference frames exist. This is because with the contraction interpretation it is possible and
necessary to describe dilated time reference frames in terms of a combination of two reference frames, each of
which can be described in terms of a size relative to the size of a non-dilated frame. One frame is expanded by a
factor of u relative to the size of a non-dilated frame, where u is the time dilation factor. This reflects the larger
distance scale of the past. The other frame is contracted by a factor of 1/u relative to the size of the non-dilated
frame, this reflecting a contraction rate based upon the larger distance scale of the past, but within the context of
the smaller distant scale of the present. It is the differences in the sizes of these frames and the resulting
differences in their rates of contraction that cause the velocity of one entity relative to another which is associated
with time dilation. Accelerated time reference frames result from reversing the expanded and contracted aspects of
dilated frames. In the contraction approach future frames are contracted, thus a contracted distance scale applies
to accelerated frames, and so does a reduced rate of contraction. From this understanding specific velocities and
positions can be ascertained for entities undergoing a time acceleration. This is described in detail in the application
of the contraction concept to the principles of special relativity theory in the supplementary section titled "Basics of
Contraction".
In these accelerated time reference frames lay the possibility of an alternative approach to describing quantum
phenomena, one which is directly derived from relativity theory. This can be done with the contraction approach to
relativity and not the conventional approach for two reasons. First, the existence of accelerated states enables
entities to traverse space at velocities that seem to be faster than the velocity of light, though they are not.
Increased rates of traversing space result from an increase in the rate at which time passes for the entity. Secondly,
because of the construction of space-time as determined by expansion and contraction, motion naturally occurs in a
wave like fashion. These are not the de Broglie waves of quantum theory. They are longitudinal waves which are
part of an extended (in space and time) nature of mass and energy, and which are structured as waves because of
the expanding and contracting nature of reality. With this approach, the quantum and relativistic natures of motion
are simply the result of two different aspects of the same phenomenon; variations in rates for the passage of time.
The existence of accelerated time reference frames also leads to the possibility that the rate at which time passes
for the Universe as a whole is not necessarily uniform and constant, and this then leads to the realization that the
faster speed of light at the beginning of the Universe as discussed earlier can also be described in terms of an
accelerated rate for the passage of time in the early Universe, this interpretation maintaining true consistency with
special relativity.
d. Anti-gravity
At first glance it might seem that the contraction model for the structure of space-time fundamentally changes the
nature of space as compared to a conventional model in that in the contraction model the amount of space between
entities would seem to naturally increase, since our standard of measure is contracting. Consequently, in the
absence of a force that attracts entities toward each other, entities separated by any amount of space will always
appear to move apart, and at a rate that is dependent upon the distance between the entities, with the greater
distance causing the greater velocity. However, Einstein's explanation of gravity, his "Theory of General Relativity",
does predict this expansion.
The concepts of contraction and time acceleration can readily be applied to the description of the space-time of
gravitational fields, and can, in fact, provide a basis for describing anti-gravity, revealing the possibility that this is
the phenomena behind the apparent expansion of distances between galaxies that is presently observed and also
the rapid initial inflation of the Universe.
It is variations in rates of contraction within a volume of space that cause both gravity and anti-gravity (dark energy).
This will be explained further later.
a. A new frame of reference
An inherent consequence of describing physical reality as contracting with time is that the velocity of light, c, must
be considered to be changing in size with the passage of time. This does not contradict special relativity theory's
assumption of a constant speed for light in a vacuum however, since all measurements of the speed of light are
made within the context of the present time frame in which everything is changing in the same way. When a beam of
light is released in the past and the distance it moves through is measured now, from the time it was released until
now it and the space through which it has traveled will have changed at the same rate as has everything else in the
present, thus they maintain a constant size relative to everything else in the present. The contracting nature of
things does, however, provide a reference frame, based upon the relative size of the distance scale that applies
when measuring the size of space at each point in time, for defining the past, present, and future. Each point in
space and time can then be described in terms of unique spatial coordinates. This is an advancement over general
relativity's space-time manifold in the sense that the time coordinate of general relativity can now be replaced by a
multiplier of the three spatial coordinates, this because the past existence of space and entities, while not directly
observable from the present, can be described in terms of size relative to the present existence of the same space
and entities, as can their future existence. With this approach it also becomes possible that space and entities,
measured in terms of the relative size of the relevant space-time reference frame at each moment in time, exist
objectively, independently and simultaneously, though with different sizes, positions, and rates of contraction
relative to the present.
Recently it has been proposed by some physicists, John Moffat et al (1999) and later Joao Magueijo, that the speed
of light was much faster at the beginning of the Universe, a point of view that obviously reflects the shrinking
concept put forward here. However, there is an important difference in what I am proposing in that it is the size of
space itself that contracts, not just the speed of light. This means that there is a uniform contraction of all space as
measured from all reference frames along with a contraction in the speed of light, and thus the velocity of light, while
contracting in size relative to it's own past, remains constant in size relative to the size of space in all reference
frames at the point in time considered. Consequently, special relativity's assumption of a constant speed for light
remains intact. This approach then gives the main benefit of having a faster speed for light at the beginning of the
Universe, namely the uniform distribution of mass and energy within the Universe, without the pitfalls associated with
breaking relativity's assumption of a constant speed for light.
b. Beginnings of the Universe
The following is an explanation of the initial development of the Universe, including the phenomenon of “inflation”,
based upon the contraction approach. Planck’s length describes the velocity of light in terms of Planck’s time period
(c equals Planck’s length/Planck's time period). As Planck’s length and Planck's time period are fundamental
constants, it is best to describe the contraction of the velocity of light and the expansion of space in terms of the
contraction of Planck’s length per Planck’s time period and it's change in size relative to the size of Universe over
the passage of time. The simplest description of the apparent expansion of the Universe through the contraction of
c would be to begin at t = 0 with the radius of the Universe (R), measured in terms of the rate that light moves
through space multiplied by time (not taking into account any added expansion factors), equal in size to Planck's
length, which at this point in time would equal approximately 1.3 x 10^26 meters in length, this equal to the present
size of c multiplied by the present age of the Universe as measured in terms of Planck time units (or ptu, approx. 5.4
x10^-44 secs), equal to approximately 7.8 x10^60 ptu. With this approach at t=0 c would equal approx. 1.3 x 10^26
meters per ptu, and from this point on c would contract at a rate of -1/(ptu)
^2.
A better way, however, to describe the evolution of the Universe is with the use of a combination of expansion and
contraction. This enables us to both to begin with a radius size of zero for the Universe and also to easily
accommodate accelerated rates of growth in the size of the Universe. With the simplest form of this expansion-
contraction approach we can say that the radius of the Universe expands from a radius size of zero at t = 0 at a rate
of t(P), where time (t) is measured in Planck time units (ptu), approx. 5.4x10^-44 secs, and P equals Planck's length
at that time (remembering it was much larger then than now). Let's assume (for reasons explained later) that the
speed of light from t = 0 to t=1 was approx. 2.8x10^30 (this equal to (7.8x10^60)^1/2) times as fast as it is now, and
also, initially the Universe expanded at c, so that at t=1 the radius of the Universe will have expanded in size to
approximately 4.5x10^-5m, equal to today's Planck's length times (2.8x10^30 ptu). At this point expansion of the
Universe continues but the speed of light, (c), our unit of measure of space, begins to contract at a rate of -1/t^2 per
ptu, where 1 represents the radius (R) of the Universe at t = 1ptu (this also equals Planck's length at t=1). Also, the
speed of light contracts in size incrementally every Planck time unit.* After approximately 2.8x10^30 Planck units of
time (1.5 x10^-13 seconds) the radius of the Universe will have expanded to a length that is approximately (2.8
x10^30) times it's size at t=1, while the speed of light (our standard of measure) will have contracted to a size that is
approximately 1/2.8x10^30 times it's speed at t=1. This then gives us a Universe that after approximately 1.5x10^-13
seconds (equal to (2.8x10^30 Planck units of time) will have an apparent radius equal to approximately 7.8 x10^60
times today’s Planck length (this equal to approximately length 1.3 x 10^26 meters ). At this point in time the
Universe slows or stops it's actual expansion, while the speed of light continues to contract, making the Universe
appear to expand.
This model as stands does not accurately reflect present day observations and interpretations of the expansion of
the Universe but it is possible to introduce variations in the expansion-contraction rates which not only enable the
model to more accurately reflect observations but also reveal the underlying unity that exists within the physical
structures of the Universe. As stated we can say that the radius of the Universe, measured in terms of the rate that
light moves through space multiplied by time, expands from a radius size of zero at a rate of R = t(P), where time (t)
is measured in Planck time units (ptu) and P equals Planck's length at t = 1. For simplicity sake we should assume
that the ratio of the radius of the present day Universe relative to Planck's length equals approximately 1x10^60:1
and that the speed of light from t = 0 to t=1 was 1x10^30 times as fast as it is now, so that at t=1 the radius of the
Universe will have expanded in size to approximately 1.6 x10^-5 m, equal to today's Planck's length x 1 x10^30. In
relative terms at that point in time this simply equals 1 Planck length. Now let's also assume that at this point the
Universe stops it's expansion for a period of time and the speed of light, (c), our unit of measure for the size of
space, begins to contract at a rate of -1/t^2 per ptu, where 1 represents the radius (R) of the Universe at t = 1 ptu
(which also equals Planck's length at t=1). The structure of the Universe at this time will be such that only one
reference frame can be considered to be non-dilated, while all other reference frames should be considered to be
moving away from this centered frame, each with a degree of time dilation relative to the centered non-dilated frame
determined by it's relative velocity, with a maximum time dilation of approximately 1x10^15 for the fastest moving
frame. After approximately 1x10^7.5 ptu, at an age of approx. 5.4x10^-36.5 sec, the Universe would appear to have
a relative size for it's radius of approx. (1x10^7.5) times Planck's length at the time, not because the radius has
changed in size but because Planck's length, this describing the speed of light, has contracted by a factor of 1/1.
0x10^7.5. It was during this stage in the evolution of the Universe that gravity would be separating from the unified
force that had until then existed. The next stage begins when a time acceleration of a factors of up to approximately
1x10^15 occur on the dilated aspects of space, for approximately 1 x 10^3.75 secs, so that the overall size of the
Universe actually expands (this a consequence of time acceleration) at such rates that after 1x10^11.75 ptu, at an
age of approx. 5.4x10^-33.25 sec, the Universe will have a radius of approx. 1.6x10^13.75m (this equal to 1.6 x10^-
5m times 1 x 10^15 times 1 x 10^3.75 secs) while Planck's length will have contracted to a size of approximately 1.6 x
10^-16.25m (this it's original size of approximately 1.6 x10^-5m contracted by a factor 1/1x10^11.25 (or 1x10^3.75
times 1x10^7.5). Consequently the relative size of the Universe at this time would be measured as approximately 1.0
x 10^30 Planck length units, or approximately 1.6x10^-5 m. The period of time over which this occurs would
represent the inflationary period in the Universe's evolution, when matter develops into it's primordial form, this
inflationary period also related to the presence of a large amount of dark energy in the Universe. It is this that sets
the stage for the next phase of expansion, when normal time is restored and Planck's length begins to return to
contracting at it's normal rate for that time. This results in an apparent rate of expansion for the Universe which is
somewhat greater than c for a period of time eventually returning to it's normal apparent rate, apparent because it's
actually due to the contraction of the speed of light. After approximately 1x10^30 ptu, the expansion reaches a point
where the interactions of electromagnetic energy begin to develop.
I'll will now explain why the Universe expands and Planck's length contracts at given rates. In my work "The Big
Shrink" I explain how the speed of light should be considered to be contracting with time, and that dilated reference
frames should be considered to be in a sense expanded relative to a non-dilated frame due to it's relationship to the
size of the past frame that corresponds to it, but with a contracted amount of space relative to the non-dilated frame
it exists in because of it's greater rate of contraction due to it greater size. Essentially dilated frames are expanded
reference frames manifested in contracted space. In that work I also explained the concept of accelerated time
reference frames in which the expanded and contracted natures of dilated frames are inverted, producing smaller
sized reference frames in expanded space. Applying these concepts to a primordial singularity (or similar such
entity) we can say that it has an infinite (in the case of an actual singularity, or extreme (in the case of limited
singularity, where the radius of total space can only collapse to the radius of one Planck length) time dilation which
begins to deteriorate through an interaction with a time accelerating agent (which I speculate is a recoil action
caused by the collapse of space that brought about the singularity), this bringing about a movement forward in
time. When the time accelerating agent is initially introduced to the singularity, one point in space becomes non-
dilated, with other points around it obtaining a speed and time dilation relative to that point, with the points furthest
away moving away the fastest with the greatest time dilation. This initial expansion follows the laws of Special
Relativity with it's speed limit of c and a progressively greater time dilation with speed. After approximately 1 x 10^7.5
Planck time units a second type of expansion occurs, this type associated with General Relativity and inflation.
During this phase the time dilations of each point in space are dissipated as they become non-dilated while space
rapidly expands, this all due to the time acceleration applied to the space. The contraction explanation of this is as
follows. Instead of a normal singularity we should begin with a limited singularity which has a radius of one Planck
length. However, since by nature space and the speed of light contracts with time, the length of Planck's length at
this time would be much larger than now, and I've determined that it would be approximately 5.4 x 10^-5 m. Thus
when the accelerating agent is applied to the singularity the relative velocity between different points in space is
actually a result of the size of the standard of measure of space contracting at that single point in space, and not
because of actual motion between it and other points. Actual motion between these points begins during the
second phase, the inflationary period. The inflationary period expands the actual size of the Universe for the period
of time it acts upon the space of the Universe. After this period the Universe stops actual expansion, and the
Universe only appears to expand through the contraction of the size of space.
In "The Big Shrink" I also explain contraction in terms of different levels with different but related rates based upon a
primary contraction rate of approximately 1/1 x 10^30, with secondary rates of the square root, 4th root, and 8th root
of 1/1 x 10^30. The nature of the initial contractions and expansions of space are based upon these different levels
and combinations of levels of contraction and expansion.
c. Time acceleration
One of the benefits of the contraction approach to understanding the apparent expansion of the Universe is that it
leads to the possibility of describing unique accelerated time reference frames. This becomes possible with the
contraction approach because the frame of reference relative to which time and space are measured is more
precisely defined than with the conventional interpretation of relativity, where it is simply the velocity of light. In the
contraction approach the basic frames of reference are the velocity of light and the rate at which it contracts with
time, this defining the size of space at any given time, and also, the size of space relative to the overall size of the
Universe.
Accelerated time reference frames have characteristics that are opposite to those of the dilated time reference
frames of special relativity theory. For an accelerated frame, time is accelerated, mass is diminished, and length is
expanded. As I will soon explain, while it is not obvious that it is possible to define accelerated time reference frames
with the conventional approach to relativity because of the relative nature of time reference frames, accelerated
time reference frames are a natural consequence of the contraction approach to describing dilated time reference
frames.
I believe that the concept of accelerated frames has not previously been considered with relativity theory because of
the presumption that the relative nature of motion precludes the possibility that accelerated time reference frames
can be uniquely defined. With the contraction approach to describing relativity it becomes more obvious that
accelerated time reference frames exist. This is because with the contraction interpretation it is possible and
necessary to describe dilated time reference frames in terms of a combination of two reference frames, each of
which can be described in terms of a size relative to the size of a non-dilated frame. One frame is expanded by a
factor of u relative to the size of a non-dilated frame, where u is the time dilation factor. This reflects the larger
distance scale of the past. The other frame is contracted by a factor of 1/u relative to the size of the non-dilated
frame, this reflecting a contraction rate based upon the larger distance scale of the past, but within the context of
the smaller distant scale of the present. It is the differences in the sizes of these frames and the resulting
differences in their rates of contraction that cause the velocity of one entity relative to another which is associated
with time dilation. Accelerated time reference frames result from reversing the expanded and contracted aspects of
dilated frames. In the contraction approach future frames are contracted, thus a contracted distance scale applies
to accelerated frames, and so does a reduced rate of contraction. From this understanding specific velocities and
positions can be ascertained for entities undergoing a time acceleration. This is described in detail in the application
of the contraction concept to the principles of special relativity theory in the supplementary section titled "Basics of
Contraction".
In these accelerated time reference frames lay the possibility of an alternative approach to describing quantum
phenomena, one which is directly derived from relativity theory. This can be done with the contraction approach to
relativity and not the conventional approach for two reasons. First, the existence of accelerated states enables
entities to traverse space at velocities that seem to be faster than the velocity of light, though they are not.
Increased rates of traversing space result from an increase in the rate at which time passes for the entity. Secondly,
because of the construction of space-time as determined by expansion and contraction, motion naturally occurs in a
wave like fashion. These are not the de Broglie waves of quantum theory. They are longitudinal waves which are
part of an extended (in space and time) nature of mass and energy, and which are structured as waves because of
the expanding and contracting nature of reality. With this approach, the quantum and relativistic natures of motion
are simply the result of two different aspects of the same phenomenon; variations in rates for the passage of time.
The existence of accelerated time reference frames also leads to the possibility that the rate at which time passes
for the Universe as a whole is not necessarily uniform and constant, and this then leads to the realization that the
faster speed of light at the beginning of the Universe as discussed earlier can also be described in terms of an
accelerated rate for the passage of time in the early Universe, this interpretation maintaining true consistency with
special relativity.
d. Anti-gravity
At first glance it might seem that the contraction model for the structure of space-time fundamentally changes the
nature of space as compared to a conventional model in that in the contraction model the amount of space between
entities would seem to naturally increase, since our standard of measure is contracting. Consequently, in the
absence of a force that attracts entities toward each other, entities separated by any amount of space will always
appear to move apart, and at a rate that is dependent upon the distance between the entities, with the greater
distance causing the greater velocity. However, Einstein's explanation of gravity, his "Theory of General Relativity",
does predict this expansion.
The concepts of contraction and time acceleration can readily be applied to the description of the space-time of
gravitational fields, and can, in fact, provide a basis for describing anti-gravity, revealing the possibility that this is
the phenomena behind the apparent expansion of distances between galaxies that is presently observed and also
the rapid initial inflation of the Universe.
It is variations in rates of contraction within a volume of space that cause both gravity and anti-gravity (dark energy).
This will be explained further later.
Richard Quist copyright@2004