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II. Basics of a Model

a. Fundamental relationships

Assuming that contraction is the defining characteristic of physical reality leads to the realization that there exists certain
fundamental relationships between the velocity of light, the age of the Universe, and Planck's length and time, and that
these relationships are basic to a model of physical reality. This model would be based upon a velocity for light of c
which stays constant relative to all inertial reference frames, but which contracts in size, along with the size of all inertial
frames, with the passage of time, and upon two fundamental time periods, a minimum one, defined by Planck's time
period (P.t.), (approx. 5.4x10^-44) sec., and a maximum one, equal to the perceived radius of the Universe divided
by Planck’s length, (equal to approximately 7.8x10^60, and which I’ll refer to as the Universe’s frequency), multiplied
by Planck’s time ( 5.4x10^-44) sec. This is equal to (approx.4 x10^17 sec, approx. 13.8 billion years) which I'll call
the base age (b.a.) for the Universe.

I have hypothesized that the velocity of light, Planck's length (P.l.), and what I'll call the base radius (b.r.) of the
Universe (equal to c multiplied by the base age, and termed base radius because this may be different than the
measured radius) can be described in terms of their sizes relative to each other. Using the term (Tp), which I'll call the
age constant and equal to approximately (2 x10^17)sec, or one half the base age of the Universe, we can say that the
base radius of the Universe, equals 2(Tp)c, and that Planck's length, (1.61x10^-35^m), equals c/(Tp^2Tp^1/2). This
then means that Planck's frequency (1.9x10^43) is equal to (Tp^2Tp^1/2)and the Planck time period (approx.
5.4x10-44) ) is equal to 1/(Tp^2Tp^1/2) sec.

Thus we have:

Age constant of the Universe, = (Tp), approx. 2 x10^17 sec.

Base age of the Universe, b.a. = 2(Tp) sec.

Base radius of the Universe, b.r.= 2(Tp)c

Planck time, P.t.= (approx. 5.4x10^-44)= 1/(Tp^2Tp^1/2) sec.

Planck frequency, P.f. = (approx. 1.9x10^43 =(Tp^2Tp^1/2)

Planck length, P.l. = 1.61x10^-33 cm = c/(Tp^2xTp^1/2)

No. of Planck time units that have passed since the beginning of the Universe at a given time = tp

Frequency of the Universe (no. of Planck time units that have passed since the beginning of the Universe at the present
time), Uf = (approx. 7.8x10^60)

b. The relative positions of photons and matter in space

The contraction hypothesis states that all space and entities within the Universe should be considered to be contracting
relative to the overall size of the Universe, this making it appear that the Universe is expanding in every direction at a
velocity of c. It can be deduced from this that any length within the Universe is contracting at the rate of L/Uf per Planck
unit of time, where L is the length considered in terms of no. of Planck lengths and Uf is the number of Planck time units that
have past since the beginning of the Universe. This then means that a length equal to the base radius of the Universe
contracts at a rate of c (which is equal to Planck’s length per Planck’s time period). This can be utilized to describe the
motion through space, at a rate of c, of a photon by simply regarding the motion of a photon to be the result of the photon
following the contraction of the space between the position of the photon and a position at a distance equal to the base
radius of the Universe in a particular direction. Consequently it can be stated that the space between any point in space and
any other point in space located at a distance equal to the base radius of the Universe in any direction will contract at a rate
of Planck’s length per Planck’s time period, which is equal to c, the speed of light, and a free photon will follow that
contraction in a particular direction, also at a speed of c.

The motion described above can also be described in terms of an oscillating motion parallel to the direction of propagation.
The oscillation would have an amplitude equal to Planck's length, a wavelength equal to 4 times Planck's length and a
period equal to 4 times Planck's time. This can be understood in terms of contraction as an increase in the rate of
contraction in the direction of propagation for 2 Planck units time alternating with a reduced rate of contraction in the
opposite direction for a period of 2 Planck units of time, this resulting in an average velocity of c for the photon.

The above describes the motion of a photon relative to the static position of matter in terms of the overall contraction of the
space of the Universe. The static position of matter can also be described in terms of the overall contraction rate of the
Universe by introducing an alternating direction of contraction, this alternation in direction of contraction occurring over a
period equal to Planck’s time. By alternating the direction of contraction of a point in space, that point then can simply be
considered to vibrate across a static position.

This alternating contraction creates a direction of contraction which is orthogonal to all the directions in which free photons
move. This orthogonal direction can be considered to possess a length equal to the radius of the Universe, though this
length is “folded” by the it’s alternating nature. The extreme example of this is revealed in the Universe as a "singularities".
There are other manifestations of the presence of this orthogonal direction, though in combination with the "normal"
directions of space. These parallel the micro dimensions of string theory.

The orthogonal direction can be best described in terms of an analogy. If we considered “normal” space to be represented
by a deck of cards laid length-wise end to end so that if each card is considered of unit length one, the total length of the
line of cards will be 52. The orthogonal direction would then be represented by those 52 cards “stacked” one upon
another, again this representing the folded over nature of the orthogonal direction. Space can then be considered to consist
of the combination of the two orthogonal directions. If the “depth” of the “stacked” direction is 2, then the length of the
“normal” direction would be 26, while if the depth is 4, the normal length would be 13.

Alternating directions of contraction can also be used to describe an expansion-contraction action of a fundamental unit of
space with a size based upon Planck’s length. This does not necessarily mean that space can be considered to have
“substance” per say, as this expansion-contraction can be considered to describe variations in the relative position and size
of an empty volume of space, but we can say that this is the space that gravity acts upon, or alters.

Taking a spherical volume of space with a radius equal to Planck’s length, we can say that over a period of time it’s radius
expands to 2 times Planck’s length then contracts to 1 time Planck’s length, keeping in mind that Planck‘s length itself is
contracting with time according to the contraction hypothesis. This expanding and contracting sphere can be described in
terms of an expanding-contracting circle which, over the period of the expansion-contraction cycle, spins on two
perpendicular axis’, one for convenience sake labeled north and south, the other east and west. The circle itself can then be
described in terms of a rotating vector which expands and contracts in size between 1 and 2 Planck lengths over one cycle
period of rotation. In addition we can say that the period of the expansion and contraction of the length of the vector can
vary such that it’s period of expansion and contraction is an eignvalue of the rotational period, thus equal to 1/n of the
rotational period, where n is a whole number value. Also, it must be remembered that the origin of the vector describing this
expanding-contracting sphere is oscillating in the manner described previously for a static point in space.

The surface of the sphere just described in terms of a rotating vector can be considered to represent an
expansion-contraction fold, or riff. This riff in some ways can be paralleled to the basic vibrating string of string theory. As
stated earlier, though, with the contraction approach we discover that there are extended aspects to this riff, or string, and
these extended aspects connect each riff to every other riff in the physical Universe.

The structure for space described above can be used to define three basic "realms of action"; one being space-time, on
which gravity acts, another being the realm of the electro-magnetic force, and the third being the realm where nuclear forces
operate. Describing these realms in terms of relative sizes and frequencies reveals a fundamental relationship between the
age and size of the Universe and Planck's time period, and gravitational, nuclear and electro-magnetic forces.

Referring back to the description of space in terms of a "normal" and an "orthogonal" direction, in the “normal” direction
space can be considered to have a length equal to approximately 7.8 x 10^60 Planck lengths, while in the orthogonal
direction, which I’ll refer to as space’s depth, this “normal” space can be said to have a depth of “1”. The extreme opposite
condition for a segment of space would be that it have the maximum "depth", equal to 7.8 x 10^60, and a "normal" length
equal to 1 Planck length. From this description of space we can define particular “special conditions” for space based upon
the square root and the fourth root of the base frequency of the Universe, 7.8 x 10^60, and these special conditions create
the realms of action mentioned earlier. A realm of space based upon the of the base frequency of the Universe would have
a radius of approximately the sq. rt. of 7.8 x 10^60 times Planck’s length, this equal to approx. 4.5 x 10^-5 m, and a
“depth” equal to the sq. rt. of 7.8 x 10^60, while one based upon the fourth root of the base frequency would have a radius
of approximately the fourth of 7.8 x10^60 times Planck’s length, this equal to approximately 2.8x10^-20 m, and a “depth”
approximately equal to the sq. rt. of 7.8x10^60 times the fourth root of 7.8x10^60, which equals 4.7x10^45.

These realms of action are related to particular contraction rates derived from the basic contraction factor of 1/Tf, (approx.
1/7.8x10^60). The contraction hypothesis states that all space and entities within the Universe should be considered to be
contracting relative to the overall size of the Universe. It can be assumed that any length within the Universe is contracting at
the rate of L/Uf per Planck unit of time, where L is the length considered in terms of no. of Planck lengths and Uf is the
number of Planck time units that have past since the beginning of the Universe. This then means that a length equal to the
base radius of the Universe contracts at a rate of c (which is equal to Planck’s length per Planck’s time period). Thus it can
be stated that the space between any point in space and any other point in space located at a distance equal to the base
radius of the Universe in any direction will contract at a rate of Planck’s length per Planck’s time period (c), the space
between two points separated by half the base radius of the Universe will contract at a rate of c/2, and the space between
two points separated by 1/3 the radius of the Universe will contract at a rate of c/3, ect. However, it is also possible to use
different contraction factors to produce a contraction rate of c. By reducing the length considered and increasing the rate of
contraction by an equal factor, the result will still be a contraction rate of c. If we use one over the square root of Uf (this
equal to approx. 1/2.8x10^30) as the contraction factor instead of 1/Uf, this increasing the instantaneous rate of contraction
(reducing time increases the rate of contraction), but also reduce the length of space being contracted by a factor of one
over the square root of Uf, thus from the radius of the Universe to approximately 10^-5 m, a velocity of c is still produced
by the contraction. This reduction to the length of space can be applied again to the 10^-5 m length, but this time by a
factor of one over the fourth root of Uf, (approx. 1/1.7x10^15), this giving a length on the order of 10^-20 meters, which,
when contracting by a rate of 1/the fourth rate of Uf produces the desired rate of c. As I will explain more later, these
lengths and contraction factors define the realms of action where the various types of energy operate; with the
approximately 1/10^60 factor defining the realm of space-time (length equal to the radius of the Universe), on which gravity
acts, the 1/10^30 factor defining the realm of the electro-magnetic force (length equal to approximately 10^-5 meters), and
the third being the realm of mass structure, where nuclear forces operate, defined by the factor 1/(10^30)x(10^15), with a
base operating length on the order of 10^-20 meters.

c. Photon structure

In regards to the structure of a photon, though ultimately the complete picture of a photon will reveal that on a certain level
it is spread out in every direction into all the space-time of the Universe, for now it can be said that the structure of a photon
is the same as that given earlier for a spherical unit of space itself, with the difference being that the origin of the vector
representing a photon moves in a particular direction relative to the center point of the stationary spatial sphere, at c.
Consequently a photon’s expansion-contraction can be referred to as a displaced spatial expansion-contraction. As with
spatial contraction, the center point and the perimeter point of a photon can be represented by a rotating vector, with the
period of rotation being a multiple of Planck's time, this determining the energy of the photon, and with a length that varies
between 1 and 2 Planck lengths over a period equal to Planck's time. With a photon though, the center point, or origin of
the vector, also moves, in an oscillating fashion with a period equal to the period of rotation of the vector, in the direction of
propagation, at c.

When Planck's time unit is considered to be a fundamental time quanta, the perimeter described above by the rotating
vector can be considered to represent an expansion-contraction fold, or riff, that exists as a whole unit over the period of
one time quanta, equal to Planck's time. As stated earlier, this riff can be paralleled to the basic vibrating string of string
theory.

The origin of the vector described above will move at an average velocity of c, average because of the oscillating motion
associated with the origin's motion, this oscillation in a +/- direction of the photon's velocity. This oscillating motion is
distinct from the rotation of the vector just described as a riff, since, as stated, this is an oscillation of the origin of the
fundamental rotating vector describing the riff. This oscillation, which I’ll refer to as the “photon” oscillation, gives the
photon the characteristic wavelength and frequency normally associated with it's energy and described by the equation
v=E/h, where E is the photons energy, h is Planck's constant and v is the photon's frequency, and the wavelength equals
the wave c/v. This description of this oscillation is simplistic in that it is not taking into account the quantum nature of a
photon's motion. This aspect of a photon's motion is not yet relevant to this depiction of a photon and is addressed in the
section on quantum phenomena.

The photon oscillation distributes the core of the photon, that is, the displaced spatial expansion-contraction that is the
core of a photon, through space. This distribution, described by the photon’s wavelength (c/frequency), determines the
energy of the photon. Basically, the energy of a photon is determined by the concentration over time of the basic
expanding-contracting riff (the core of the photon) in an area of space, this concentration revealed by the wave associated
with the photon.

A photon's energy is determined by it's vector origin's rate of oscillation, with a maximum period of oscillation equal to
2Tp seconds, this for a photon with minimum possible energy, and with all other possible periods being an eignperiod of
this period. Also, these other periods will represent multiples of the period of the fundamental photon oscillation (equal to
Planck‘s time).

With this description of a photon, the energy of a photon can be understood to be the result of the potential that exists in
both the contraction action that exists in spatial contraction (the individual units of space) plus the potential that exists
between any point in space and the other points in space that are located at a distance equal to the basic radius of the
Universe away, this causing the velocity of c for the photon.

e. Matter structure and nuclear forces

To describe the matter state, the velocity c associated with a photon should now be described in terms of a unique
oscillating motion, thus a third oscillation, which I’ll refer to as the matter oscillation. This oscillation is distinct from the
photon oscillation, and the photon oscillation still exists even when a photon is in the matter state. The matter oscillation
period equals the total energy of the matter (c^2) divided by Planck’s constant (h), thus it would be the same as a photon
with the same energy. The length of the rotating vector describing the matter oscillation will equal the wavelength of a
photon with equivalent energy, divided by 2pi.

As explained earlier, there is a "realm of action" for matter, this intrinsic to the structure of space. The length of space in
which the matter oscillation occurs is described by the secondary contraction factors of 1/square root of Tp times the
fourth root of Tp that I introduced earlier. This length is on the order of 10^-20 meters in length.

Obviously as matter becomes concentrated in a small area of space the wavelength associated with the total energy of the
matter becomes shorter. Eventually a sufficient amount of matter properly concentrated forms nuclear bonds, both weak
and strong. In the contraction approach this occurs because the concentration of matter reaches a critical point and the
space that the matter exists in becomes fundamentally altered. It becomes both expanded, and turned inside out, relative to
normal space, creating a different realm of space. The fundamental sphere of space with a radius of approx. 2 Planck
lengths described earlier for normal space, in a manner of speaking, expands, with the surface of the sphere becoming
"spread" through a lenght of space, this effectively expanding the sphere of space from a radius of approximately the length
of 2 Planck lengths to the radius of a nucleon (about 1x10^-15 meters). The expanded surface of the sphere representing
the space of the nucleon, which will be at variable distances from the center of the sphere, becomes the “point of
contraction” for the photons comprising the nucleon. This is why quarks act as they do. Attempting to pull them apart
actually pulls them toward the inside surface of the sphere and this increases the binding force of the quarks. To separate
them one would need to force them together, to the center of the sphere, where the expansion-contraction of the photons
comprising them would interact differently.

With the contraction approach, it can be seen that the binding forces between nucleons are equal to the gravitational
attraction between two particles with a nucleon's mass but which are separated by a distance equal to one Planck length
unit. The acceleration due to this force can be described by the same equation introduced earlier for gravity, [(wc)x
(Planck's length)^2]/d^2, with d set to one. The need to set the distance (d) to one reflects the concept that the net effect
of concentrating matter into a nucleon is the expansion of the basic unit of space that they exist in, from a radius of
approximately the length of 2 Planck lengths to the radius of a nucleon (about 1x10^-15 meters). This force would
diminish rapidly, just as gravitational attraction does at distances closes to Planck's length, since in this approach magnitude
of attraction is described as diminishing by a factor of Planck's length squared divided by separating distance squared.

f. Electro-magnetic energy

One of the "realms of action" defined by c and the age and size of the Universe is that of the electro-magnetic force. the
secondary contraction factor that applies to this realm is 1/10^30, over a length of approximately 10^-5. EMF forces result
from the orientation of contraction and expansion actions within rotating particles, this creating an EMF.

The force of a EMF can be related to gravitational force in the same way the nuclear binding forces were. Since the
nuclear binding force must overcome the EMF repulsive force of protons, at a distance of approximately 10 ^-15 meters,
when the nuclear force begins to overcome the EMF, they are at about equal strength. Thus the force imparted by EMF at
this distance is also equal in magnitude to the gravitational force between two protons separated by a distance equal to
Planck’s length (as described earlier). The difference though is the strength of the EMF diminishes with increases in
distance at a slower rate than does the nuclear force, since this rate is based upon distances measured in terms of the
different realms of action in which each operate.

g. Gravity

The description of the contraction of space in terms of the expansion and contraction of a group of fundamental units of
space can be used to define the "realm of action" for gravity and to describe the spatial distortions of gravity. As stated
earlier, matter has extended aspects, and one manifestation of these extended aspects is gravity, in the form of gravity
waves or gravitons. As general relativity shows, gravity warps space-time. In the contraction approach though, gravity can
be considered to be actually an extension of matter, with a fundamental increment of matter being associated with a
fundamental increment of gravity, a graviton, with these gravitational increments causing fundamental increments of space to
expand and contract at different rates, causing the repositioning of matter and energy located within the field. In a
gravitational field space can be considered to expand outwardly from the center of gravity and relative to the position of
matter and energy in the field, and then contract at a faster rate toward the gravitational center, carrying along with it the
matter and energy located in the field, imparting an increase in velocity toward the center of the field to the matter and
energy. With this understanding there is a simple and direct method for describing acceleration due to gravity. Mass can be
described in terms of fundamental units, with each fundamental unit of mass equal to h/c^2. Each of these units produces a
certain amount of gravity which causes an increase in the rate of contraction of the space between it and other units of
mass. It can be said that the sum of the contracting forces of these fundamental mass units which comprise a mass body
warps the space-time that contains the body, as says General Relativity theory, causing mass and energy located in that
space-time to accelerate toward the center of the group of mass units. In terms of hypothetical gravitons, it can be said that
gravitons cause an imbalance in the expansion and contraction of the fundamental units of space that comprise space-time,
this giving the fundamental units a structure which causes mass and energy located in that space to contract toward the
position of the fundamental unit with the greatest number of gravitons, this being located the center of the gravitational field.
Here is a formula for acceleration due to gravity that is derived with the contraction approach, using the term Tp, and which
is equivalent to Newton's gravitational equation:

Acceleration = [2pi(N)(c/(Tp^3))]/[(d^2)(Tp^2)/(c(1sec))^2)], where c is the velocity of light, N=mc^2 /h, h equals
Planck's constant, Tp is the age constant (approx. 2x10^17)seconds, and d is the distance between the masses. This can
also be expressed as wc/D^2, where w is the angular frequency of the mass (defined as (2pi)mc^2/h), of the system, c is
the speed of light and D is the distance between the bodies expressed in terms a number of Planck length units (d/Planck's
length).

CONTENTS